Spanish: The Language We Didn’t Choose to Lose

The Forgotten Majority: When Filipinos Spoke Spanish

The common answer says Spanish never really took root in the Philippines. That claim does not survive a serious look at the historical record.

Spanish was widely spoken in the Philippines by the time the Americans arrived. Not by a tiny elite (or ilustrados). Not only inside churches or courts. By ordinary Filipinos, as a first or second language. What changed was not public preference, but policy, power, and war.

The decline of Spanish was not natural. It was engineered.

First, we need to correct the numbers.

American censuses in 1903 and 1905 claimed that only around 10 percent of Filipinos spoke Spanish. With a population of roughly nine million, this placed Spanish speakers at about 900,000. But this figure counted only those who spoke Spanish as their first and only language.

In 1908, Luciano de la Rosa, a Katipunan veteran, lawyer, and member of the Philippine Assembly, published a different finding. He showed that around 60 percent of Filipinos spoke Spanish as a second language. Combined with first language speakers, this means close to 70 percent of the population could speak Spanish in some form.

That is a majority.

This was not an abstract claim. Early American officials confirmed it themselves. David P. Barrows, Director of the Bureau of Public Instruction, noted that the socially influential classes spoke Spanish. Politics, journalism, and commerce operated mainly in Spanish. English, at that point, was marginal.

Spanish was the working language of public life.

So what changed?

American rule deliberately disconnected the Philippines from the Hispanic world. This happened through three main channels.

First, education.

The Americans introduced a public school system that was broader and more efficient than what existed before. This part is often praised, and rightly so. But the system was designed to privilege English. Spanish was excluded from higher education and public administration. Over time, English became the language of mobility.

Ironically, early American education even increased Spanish literacy at first. Barrows himself admitted that more Filipinos knew Spanish after the American occupation began. This alarmed colonial officials. Barrows openly argued that Spanish would decline if it were cut off from institutional support, since the Philippines was geographically isolated from other Spanish-speaking countries.

That was not an accident. It was strategy.

Second, suppression and stigma.

Spanish was slowly removed from public life. It was portrayed as backward. Spain was framed as the villain of history, while the United States cast itself as the savior. English was presented as modern, practical, and necessary. Spanish became associated with the past, even with punishment. Speaking it meant exclusion from power.

Prominent Filipino educators resisted this shift. They were ignored.

Third, destruction.

World War II delivered the final blow.

Manila was the center of Spanish-speaking life. Districts like Intramuros and Ermita formed the cultural core of Philippine Hispanidad. During the Battle of Manila, over 100,000 civilians died. Most of the city was destroyed. Around 90 percent of Spanish-owned buildings and institutions were wiped out.

Spanish-speaking communities were physically erased.

Even then, Spanish did not disappear overnight. Before the war, Spanish literature in the Philippines experienced a golden age. Major Filipino writers were still producing works in Spanish well into the 1920s and 1930s. English literature was still developing.

Manila itself remained largely Spanish-speaking until the war. Ermita even developed its own Chavacano variety, now extinct.

After three American wars fought on Philippine soil, English became the language of the victor.

This history matters.

The disappearance of Spanish in the Philippines was not proof that Filipinos rejected it. It was the result of deliberate policy, cultural isolation, and mass destruction. Guillermo Gómez Rivera calls this cultural genocide. That term is debated. But the intent to sever the Philippines from its Hispanic roots is clearly documented.

The United States achieved many things. But its empire was built by dismantling other cultures. The Philippines is not unique. Guam, Hawaii, Puerto Rico, and Native American nations tell similar stories.

Spanish in the Philippines is weakened, but not dead. What is missing is an honest conversation. One that acknowledges how language power works. One that accepts that history is not neutral.

You cannot explain the present if you erase the past.

References

• Gómez Rivera, G. La persecución del uso oficial del idioma español en Filipinas. Revista Arbil.
• Gómez Rivera, G. Statistics: The Spanish Language in the Philippines.
• Barrows, D. P. Reports of the Bureau of Public Instruction.
• Quilis, A. and Casado-Fresnillo, C. La lengua española en Filipinas. Madrid, 2008.
• Rodríguez-Ponga, R. Pero ¿cuántos hablan español en Filipinas? Cuadernos Hispanoamericanos.
• The Sack of Manila. The Battling Bastards of Bataan.

Things to do in 2026 and beyond

100 things that I don't know that I should miss in my life

A curated list of 100 things I may not know that I should experience or not miss in life, in no particular order of importance, but arranged to inspire myself, and so are you:

Google Photo

Experiences that expand my world

• Visit a remote Philippine island with no signal.
• Watch a play at the Cultural Center of the Philippines.
• Walk alone in a foreign country where you don’t speak the language.
• Spend a night in an ancestral house in Vigan.
• Tour a Spanish-era church and ask the priest about its history.
• Get lost in Intramuros with no map.
• See the Northern Lights at least once.
• Visit a UNESCO heritage site outside the Philippines.
• Go on a solo road trip across Luzon.
• Ride a slow train through the countryside.

Creative and artistic moments

• Join an improv class (yes, even as an actor).
• Write and direct a short film—even on your phone.
• Paint something abstract and hang it in your home.
• Watch a silent film in an old theater.
• Memorize and perform a monologue by heart—just for yourself.
• Record your own voice reading poetry and play it back.
• Attend a backstage rehearsal of a major play.
• Make a documentary about your neighborhood.
• Collaborate with a visual artist.
• Try stage managing a small production.

Human encounters you won’t forget

• Listen to a stranger’s life story in a café.
• Interview a World War II survivor.
• Have a heart-to-heart with your oldest living relative.
• Sit beside a child and ask them about their dreams.
• Volunteer for a cause that makes you cry.
• Talk to a street vendor about their day.
• Reconnect with someone from your past—even if awkward.
• Hug a person who really needs it.
• Say sorry to someone you hurt.
• Say “I forgive you” even if they don’t apologize.

Soulful and inner work

• Take a vow of silence for one day.
• Spend one weekend offline.
• Write a letter to your future self.
• Meditate during sunrise in nature.
• Watch the stars with zero distractions.
• Let go of something painful—and release it with ritual.
• Read a sacred text from a different religion.
• Go on a retreat with no phones, no goals—just reflection.
• Keep a dream journal for a month.
• Light a candle for someone you lost.

Nature encounters to remember

• Hike a mountain before dawn.
• Swim under a waterfall in Sagada or Aurora.
• Plant a tree and name it.
• Sleep under the stars without a tent.
• Observe birds in their natural habitat.
• Feed animals in a wildlife sanctuary.
• Surf even if you’re scared.
• See fireflies in Palawan or Donsol.
• Trek to an old crater lake.
• Experience the sea during a full moon.

Lifelong learning

• Learn to write with your non-dominant hand.
• Read a book from a banned list.
• Learn how to say “thank you” in 20 languages.
• Take an online course on something obscure (like Norse mythology).
• Study your own family genealogy.
• Watch a foreign film without subtitles.
• Learn sign language basics.
• Memorize one famous speech (try Martin Luther King or Jose Rizal).
• Learn how to read your birth chart.
• Try solving a Rubik’s cube.

Professional lessons that matter

• Say no to a high-paying opportunity that doesn’t align with your values.
• Mentor someone younger than you.
• Pitch an idea that scares you.
• Get rejected and bounce back stronger.
• Be on stage or camera with no script.
• Negotiate your worth without guilt.
• Work with people who challenge your perspective.
• Present something live to a skeptical audience.
• Learn to say “I don’t know” confidently.
• Build a passion project that pays nothing—at first.

Simple joys and guilty pleasures

• Eat street food in a hidden alley.
• Cook your childhood favorite dish for friends.
• Drink halo-halo during a storm.
• Dance in the rain in your neighborhood.
• Watch a sappy teleserye and cry.
• Ride a tricycle at midnight while singing karaoke.
• Laugh until your stomach hurts with old friends.
• Eat alone in a fancy restaurant.
• Wear your fanciest clothes on an ordinary day.
• Watch your favorite movie three times in a row.

Financial and Legacy Thinking

• Save for something that inspires you, not just what you need.
• Set up a fund for someone else’s education.
• Create a will—even just a simple one.
• Buy land or a space that’s meaningful, not just profitable.
• Donate anonymously.
• Spend for an experience rather than a gadget.
• Learn how to do taxes by yourself (once).
• Write your “financial regrets” and learn from them.
• Build passive income—even if small.
• Gift a book that changed your life.

Legacy, Purpose, and the Long Game

• Speak at a school where you once studied.
• Write your personal manifesto and share it.
• Record a message to your future grandkids.
• Leave a thank-you note to your mentors.
• Help a stranger reach their dream.
• Plant something meaningful on your birthday.
• Build or help build a physical thing that outlasts you (a mural, tree, school desk).
• Tell your life story—even if you think it’s “ordinary.”
• Apologize to your younger self.
• Let your heart break wide open and still choose to love again.

Pampanga: The Mega-Province that once ruled Central Luzon

Pampanga Once Spanned Coast to Coast: What Went Wrong?

If we imagine Pampanga today, we see the heart-shaped province at the mouth of the Pampanga River—renowned for its culinary traditions, festive celebrations, and strong people. But in centuries past, Pampanga wasn't merely the province we see today. It was a coast-to-coast mega-province that spanned the China Sea in the west to the Pacific Ocean in the east.

Yes, you are reading that correctly—Pampanga once dominated the central portion of Luzon.

Pampanga: One of Luzon's First Mega-Provinces

Founded early on in Spanish colonization, Pampanga was one of Luzon's initial three huge provinces, together with Ilocos (north) and Manila (south, including Bicol).

Large parts of Pampanga were wilderness territory—swamps, forests, rice paddies—with settlements along the Pampanga River (Rio Grande de la Pampanga) and Rio Chico. Kapampangan-speaking peoples inhabited the areas along these rivers, while tribal communities, including headhunting tribes that were feared, inhabited the interior.

As colonial control became deeper, the borders of Pampanga expanded dramatically. At some point, its authority reached as far north as Palanan, Isabela, and as far south as Infanta, Quezon. Pampanga actually covered both seas.

Why Pampanga Lost Territory?

The primary concern was governance. It was practically impossible to rule such a vast area from Bacolor, the capital town. The Spaniards started dividing Pampanga into commandancias (military posts), which later became distinct provinces:

• Nueva Ecija (1704) – Originally a commandancia, eventually a province in 1848, which incorporated Kapampangan-speaking municipalities such as Cabiao, Gapan, and San Isidro.
• Nueva Vizcaya (1839) – Created out of Pampanga's northern provinces.
• Principe (1853) – Eventually became Tayabas, then Quezon, then Aurora.
• Isabela (1856) – Continuing to reduce Pampanga's northern extent.
• Tarlac (1860) – Encompassed Pampanga towns Floridablanca, Porac, Mabalacat, and Magalang. These were restored later but Tarlac was made a full-fledged province by 1873.

The rest of Pampanga was ceded to Bataan (established in 1754) and further exerted an influence on Zambales through ancient mountain trails, some of which were lost only after the 1991 eruption of Mount Pinatubo.

Even Bulacan's past intersects with Pampanga. Some historians maintain that Pampanga's southern boundary originally extended as far as the Pasig River. Kapampangan heritage is still evident in Bulacan place names—Kapitangan, Longos, Calumpang, Pinaod, Biclat, and many more.

Pampanga Today

After centuries of political remaking, Pampanga has contracted to its current state. But here's the key point: the Kapampangan cultural area stretches far beyond its official limits.

To this day, Kapampangan continues to be spoken in sections of:

• Nueva Ecija (Cabiao, San Isidro, Gapan)
• Bulacan (Hagonoy, San Miguel, Pulilan, Paombong)
• Bataan (Dinalupihan, Hermosa, Orion, Pilar, Balanga)
• Tarlac (Bamban, Capas, Concepcion, sections of Tarlac City)

The lines drawn on maps may divide political provinces, but culture, language, and memory cross the lines.

Why This History Matters?

The province was founded on December 11, 1571 and reading about the history of Pampanga as a mega-province reminds us of three things:

• Colonial administration reshaped our maps, but not our identity. Kapampangan roots remain strong across central Luzon despite political borders.
• History explains culture. Ever wondered why people in Bulacan or Nueva Ecija speak Kapampangan? Or why Bataan town names sound Kapampangan? The answer lies in Pampanga’s vast reach centuries ago.
• Unity, not division. Nowadays, borders might be important for administration, but for culture and identity, they don't exist. A kabalen from Nueva Ecija is no less Kapampangan than a kabalen from San Fernando.

Final Word

Pampanga is no longer the coast-to-coast mega-province it was before. But its spirit remains in the language, customs, and collective memory of its people throughout Central Luzon.

Thus to our Kapampangan brothers and sisters in Bulacan, Nueva Ecija, Bataan, and Tarlac: the map may dictate otherwise, but history dictates otherwise, you are, and will forever remain, part of us.

E malaut a Kapampangan—no border can ever alter that.

Beyond the Big 4: The Truth About Class and Education in the Philippines

Elite Education in the Philippines: Gateway or Gatekeeping?

Throughout most of Philippine history, higher education belonged only to the rich. From the ilustrados who went abroad to study in Europe in the Spanish period, to the pensionados who were sent to the United States during the American period, education was never merely about learning—it was about class.

Even now, our education system is still reflective of that truth. The better schools are still pricey and exclusive, while most Filipinos are stuck with under-funded public schools. As sociologist Dr. Lorenzana explains:

"Schools are a proxy for social class identity. The way this works as a class practice is through the process of distinction."

In other words, schools don't just educate. They sort. They define. They divide.

Education as Social Capital

Which "flavor" of elite education you receive often determines your career trajectory. Certain schools have a reputation for medicine, others law or business. Each one specializes, perpetuating the idea that education isn't about gaining knowledge—it's about gaining entry to opportunities.

This has implications:

• HR officers view the name of the school on a CV as a gauge of "quality."
• Networks created in elite schools become internships, employment, and promotions.
• Cultural capital—accents, mannerisms, even extracurriculums—marks class.
• The outcome? School reinforces inequality rather than eradicates it.

Rebuttal #1: "Everyone has equal access now, we have scholarships."

True, scholarships do exist. But they only serve a limited number of students, and most of them demand already solid academic backgrounds to start with. In the meantime, the rest still struggle through crowded classrooms, underpaid teachers, and archaic curricula in public schools.

Data Check: UNESCO (2022) indicates that the Philippines invests only 3.2% of its GDP in education, far from the recommended 6%. This constrains access and quality across the board. Scholarships will not make a dent in bridging the gap when the system is inherently unequal.

Rebuttal #2: "It's about merit, not money."

Education rewards talent and hard work in theory. Privilege tilts the table in practice. A student who attends a wealthy private school can score high marks on university entrance exams—not only due to aptitude, but because the private school paid for smaller class sizes, improved facilities, and test preparation.

Their equally able public school peers struggle with much fewer resources. Meritocracy is impossible without equal opportunity.

Rebuttal #3: "At least K-12 and CHED reforms make us job-ready."

The Education Department has made efforts to make K-12 "job market-ready," while CHED has pushed to lower general education requirements. The concept is to make employability more important than liberal arts.

But this sole focus can lead to schools becoming factories for low-wage jobs. A diploma that ensures only a ₱20,000 starting salary is not the life-changing promise of education—it's a compromise.

Education must not be merely about employment; it must be about self-empowerment, critical thinking, and civic engagement. Framing it as a pipeline for cheap labor devalues its real worth.

On Self-Worth Beyond the "Big 4"

What about those who don't hail from Ateneo, UP, La Salle, or UST? Are they bound for less? Maybe not.

Dr. Lorenzana's counsel pierces the illusion:

“To make it in this world, one needs to have realistic goals and survive. Do not resent yourself or society for your social situation. Learn the rules of the game.”

This means finding ways to build capital outside of school branding:

• Building a portfolio of actual work and skills.
• Leveraging online platforms for certifications and training.
• Expanding networks beyond school through organizations, volunteering, or freelance work.
• Prestige opens doors, but skills and hard work keep them open.

Last Thought

The Philippine education system is still highly bound to class identity. The "Big 4" and other elite universities continue to dominate channels to power and affluence. But education needs to be taken back not as a gatekeeper, but as a gateway—for all Filipinos, no matter the status.

We are not fated to an unfair system. But we cannot pretend that scholarships and ad hoc reforms suffice. True change calls for systemic reform: increased investment in public schools, more equitable hiring practices that don't discriminate based on alma mater, and a cultural shift that rewards competence over connections.

Until then, we play "the game." But maybe it's time we quit just playing by the rules—and began rewriting them.